Preterm birth and premature rupture of the membranes

2021-1-HU01-KA220-HED-000027613 - COHRICE

 

SYLLABUS

Preterm birth and premature rupture of the membranes

(Advanced level)

According to WHO data, around 15 million preterm births occur worldwide each year, about 10% of all births. About 1 million children die each year due to complications caused by premature birth. The main cause of death under 5 years of age can also be traced back to complications caused by premature birth. (1) Another problem is that the chances of survival of premature babies are far from the same in different parts of the world. In underdeveloped countries, about half of newborns born before 32 weeks die, while in developed countries the survival rate is almost 100%.

What are the most important causes of preterm birth?

Medically related factors: previous premature birth, premature rupture of membranes in
the history, short cervix, intrauterine infection,STD: Chlamydia, Gonorrhea. (2)
Maternal diseases: high blood pressure, diabetes, twin pregnancy, too low or too high
body weight, less than 18 months between pregnancies. (3)
Maternal age: younger women ˂r 17 and older women over 35(OR:1.70, 95% CI: 1.02-3.08). (4)

Incorrect lifestyle: smoking (including second hand smoke), alcohol, drugs, short period
between pregnancies (less than 18 months between pregnancies) (OR: 1.7, 95% CI: 1.3-2.2). (4)
Environmental factors: air pollution, consumption of polluted water.
Social factors: poverty, poor social conditions. (5) Social inequalities have a detrimental effect on pregnancy. There is a study that found evidence that unemployment (OR: 1.52, 95% CI: 1.3-1.7) and lack of social support (OR: 1.17, 95% CI: 1.01-1.35, p =0.04) is associated with a higher risk of premature birth. In the case of occupations involving heavy physical work, the risk of premature birth is higher, (6)

The weight of different risk factors is not the same. The most important are the presence
of prior premature birth in the medical history (OR: 3.412, 95% CI: 1.342-8.676) and premature rupture of membranes, which is responsible for 1/3-1/4 of preterm births. (4)
What are the main risk factors in an ongoing pregnancy? In the case of an ongoing pregnancy, the most important risk factors are previous vaginal bleeding, twin pregnancy, polyhydramnios, pregnancy created with IVF techniques, short cervix.

The main cause of prior vaginal bleeding is threatened miscarriage and placenta previa, which are obvious risk factors. Another important factor is the length of the cervix.

Premature rupture of membranes (PROM) affects about 3-5% of pregnancies and is the cause of about 30% of premature births. PROM is a rupture  of the membranes before labor begins. If  PROM occurs before 37 weeks of pregnancy, it is called preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM).

PPROM most often has an infectious cause. If someone has a history of  PPROM, they are more likely to have a recurrence in the next pregnancy. (7,8) If  PPROM occurs, premature birth occurs within one week in about half of the cases, while in 70-80% it occurs 2-5 weeks after PPROM. (9, 10)  The average latency time is inversely proportional to the gestational age (9, 11). The frequency of intra-amniotic infection ranges between 15-25% and approx. there is the same chance of an intrauterine infection occurring after delivery. (9, 12)

What is the diagnosis of threatened preterm labor? Symptoms of threatened preterm birth are bleeding, the appearance of uterine contractions, or PROM. When these symptoms appear, the risk of preterm birth is already quite high. There is a natural need to find ways to screen out cases where there is an increased risk of preterm birth before these symptoms appear. Although routine screening of cervical length for all pregnant women is not recommended, in practice many do it. As for the limit of cervical length below which there is an increased risk of preterm birth, there is no consensus. The most accepted limit at 24 weeks gestational age is 25mm (10th percentile) (37.3% sensitivity and 92.2% specificity) (13), but this is not a uniformly accepted value either. According to others, the limit value ≤15 mm is a more optimal value for predicting premature birth occurring within three weeks (81% specificity and 83% positive predictive value). The Fetal Medicine Foundation recommends routine cervical length ultrasound screening in pregnant women with a history of preterm birth. (14) (grade 1A) It does not recommend routine screening after cerclage surgery, placenta previa, multiple pregnancies, or PROM. (14) (grade 2B)

What laboratory methods are used in the diagnosis of preterm birth?

Fetal fibronectin determination: alone or in combination with cervical length measurement. Fetal fibronectin can be found in cervicovaginal secretions up to 22 weeks. If present between 24 and 33 weeks, it draws attention to the increased risk of preterm birth. In the case of combining the two, the negative predictive value increases, but the positive predictive value remains low, therefore the method is not recommended for routine use. In addition to the qualitative determination of fetal fibronectin, if a quantitative determination is also performed, the results are slightly better. Recommended limit values: 10 ng/ml and ˃200 ng/ml). So, with a value ˂ 10 ng/ml, the risk of preterm birth is unlikely, while ˃ 200 ng/ml, the risk of preterm birth is high. Recently, it has been proposed to change these thresholds to 50 ng/mL and 500 ng/mL, as this increases the positive predictive value without significantly affecting the negative predictive value. (15)

Determination of insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-1 (IGFBP-1). With a value of <10 g, asymptomatic pregnant women have a low risk of preterm birth.
Other tests used to predict preterm birth are: placental alpha microglobulin-1 test (PAMG-1) and phosphorylated insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-1. (IGFBP-1) For short cervix 15-30 mm, PAMG-1 was found to be better than IGFBP-1.

In summary, none of the tests reach the desired accuracy for the time being, which is why their application and distribution are limited.

What are the symptoms of premature rupture of membranes?
 The pathology of premature rupture of membranes is most often obvious when the clear leakage of amniotic fluid is visible. If the leakage is not clear, the leakage can be detected with sterile speculum placed in the vagina. If this is not clear either, then the pH determination from the vaginal discharge Nitrazine test (alkaline) or the drawing of a fern leaf of the drying secretion will help. An ultrasound examination can detect an obvious decrease in the amount of amniotic fluid. According to the RCOG 73 guideline, PAMG-1 and IGFBP-1 determination may be useful in dubious cases (95.7% sensitivity, 100% specificity, 100% positive predictive value and 75% negative predictive value). (16)

If the presence of rupture of the membranes is confirmed, the gestational age, the intrauterine position of the fetus and the fetal status diagnosis should be determined. Look for signs of infection, premature placental abruption, and fetal distress. A vaginal bacteriological examination should be performed with particular attention to the detection of Group B Streptococcus. A cardiotocography examination is also recommended, which shows signs of possible fetal distress and possible uterine activity. Termination of pregnancy is justified in the case of existing severe infection, premature placental abruption and symptoms of fetal distress.

What is the treatment of preterm birth?    Unfortunately, we still do not have an optimal treatment procedure in this case. This is due to the fact that the treatment method is mainly influenced by the gestational age and the presence of possible complications, such as chorioamnionitis 15-25%, premature placental abruption 2-5%, onset of premature labor, etc.

The probability of PPROM before fetal viability is reached is about 1%. In such cases, fetuses have very little chance of survival. This rate is about 17% and the rate of serious complications is very high (bronchopulmonary dysplasia 50% and intrauterine retardation 36%, which usually starts about 2 weeks after the rupture. (17  In these cases, only the conservative procedure (expectative management) is recommended, even if there is a high chance of intraamniotic infection, endometritis, premature placental abruption, and placental disruptions disorders after delivery. Although severe maternal sepsis, which threatens the mother's life, is often cited as the direct cause of labor induction, its frequency is around 1%.(9,10) Neither corticosteroid prophylaxis, nor tocolysis, nor magnesium sulfate treatment is recommended before fetal viability is achieved. Only antibiotic prophylaxis is recommended, which should also be directed against possible Group B streptococcal (GBS)infection. (9)

After 24 weeks of gestation, the fetus's chances of survival are higher, but since lung maturation is only completed at approximately 33 weeks, breathing support is necessary for the vast majority of fetuses born. As a result, it is a generally accepted principle that, in favorable cases, one should try to prolong the pregnancy, preferably until the lung maturation is completed, after which the waiting position is no longer justified.

This was refuted by a study published in 2016 (PPROMT trial), which concluded that despite the fact that, theoretically, the process of lung maturation is completed by 33 weeks of pregnancy, the adaptation of the fetuses after birth improves and the morbidity indicators decrease with the application of the waiting position in case of. (18) Thus, the benefits from the waiting position outweigh the risks and in the absence of signs of infection or other complications that would require artificial induction of labor or immediate termination of the pregnancy, it is recommended to use the waiting position below 37 weeks of gestation (expectantly management).

With immediate induction of labor, the chance of complex neonatal morbidity is 7.9% versus 6.7% in the waiting position. (RR: 1.2, 95% CI: 0.9-1.6), the RR of RDS syndrome is 8.3% versus 5.2% (RR: 1.6, 95% CI: 1.1-2.30), while the RR of artificial mechanical ventilation is: 1.4, 95% CI: 1.0-1.8. Born after artificial induction of labor newborns spent an average of 4 days in the intensive care unit, versus 2 day in case of expectantly management  P = 0.001.

In addition to the immediate initiation of labor, the number of cesarean sections was also higher, relative risk RR: 1.4, 95% CI: 1.2-1.7, the risk of antepartum bleeding was higher in the case of the expectantly management, while the frequency of antepartum bleeding complications was higher in the case of the expectant position (2.9% vs. 5%). Fetal mortality was also lower with the expectantly management. (RR: 2.55, 95% CI: 1.17–5.56). This change in attitude is also reflected in the guidelines that have been published since then, where it has become almost universal that in the case of premature rupture of membranes under 37 weeks of gestation, the expectant position is preferable to immediate induction of labor.

What to do in case of threatened preterm birth and premature rupture of membranes? Hospital referral, continuous search for signs of infection, premature placental abruption, umbilical cord compression, fetal distress. Follow-up of fetal growth with periodic ultrasound control. As far as the fetal condition assessment after  PPROM is concerned, there is no uniformly accepted position on exactly what parameters should be followed and at what intervals.

The signs of chorioamnionitis are very often non-specific, often missing from the laboratory findings. Continuous monitoring of the white blood cell count and inflammation markers does not always reflect reality, especially if corticosteroid therapy was also used beforehand (9,19). Signs of possible chorioamnionitis are C-reactive protein, an increase in white blood cell count, and clinical signs: maternal tachycardia, fever, fetal tachycardia. As a rule, the diagnosis of chorioamnionitis should be determined based on the combined evaluation of the values ​​of these factors, and one should not rely on just one sign. For example, an elevated C-reactive protein value alone does not necessarily mean a serious infection. The sensitivity of the elevated value is only 68.7%, while its specificity is 77.1%. It is important to know that after the use of corticosteroid therapy, the white blood cell count increases even without infection and that the original values ​​only appear after about 3 days.

What are the contradictions related to the treatment of threatened premature birth and premature rupture of membranes? The question of tocolysis: prophylactic tocolysis before 34 weeks of gestation prolongs pregnancy by a few days, but increases the risk of chorioamnionitis. In the case of preterm labor, tocolysis no longer has a demonstrable benefit and is therefore not recommended. (9). Although tocolysis generally prolongs the duration of pregnancy by an average of 73 hours, there are studies that show that this is not associated with better rates of fetal morbidity. (Evidence Level 1+,16,20,21)

Corticosteroid prophylaxis: is not recommended before 24 weeks of gestation. Its use between 24-25 weeks is beneficial (Evidence Level B), while between 25 and 33 weeks of gestation the benefits are clear (Evidence Level A). According to the latest research, the benefits are clear even between 33-35 weeks. (16) (Evidence Level A) There are now several meta-analyses that clearly prove the benefits of corticosteroid therapy regardless of the condition of the membranes: it reduces fetal death, RDS syndrome (RR:0.81, 95%CI:0.67-0.98), chance of intraventricular hemorrhage (RR: 0.49, 95% CI: 0.25-0.96), without increasing the chance of chorioamnionitis or neonatal sepsis.(Evidence Level A). Between 24-34 weeks of gestation, most recommendations recommend a single application. With repeated doses, there is a risk that the growth of fetal weight and fetal head circumference will be below normal. (9, 22, 23, 24)

Administration of MgSO4: There are several studies showing that MgSO4 at 24-32 weeks of gestation is beneficial in preventing neurological damage (RR: 0.71; 95%CI: 0.55-0.91) (9,16,25) (Evidence Level A), however, there is still no consensus regarding doses and treatment regimens.

Antibiotic prophylaxis: Antibiotic prophylaxis reduces the chance of infection, thus indirectly contributing to the prolongation of pregnancy. According to a Cochrane meta-analysis, the use of antibiotics significantly reduces the chance of chorioamnionitis (RR: 0,66, 95% CI: 0,46-0,96), and also the risk of preterm delivery within seven days (RR: 0,79, 95%CI: 0,71-0,89). At the same time, the chance of neonatal infection decreases, as well as the need to use invasive oxygen therapy or surfactant less often. The most frequently used scheme: intravenous ampicillin (4x2g) and erythromycin (4x250mg) for 7 days, then orally administered amoxicillin or erythromycin. The chance of neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis increases after amoxicillin-clavulanic acid combinations. Group B Streptococcus infection is not an indication for the immediate initiation of labor, here too expectantly management is possible, but in such cases, antibiotic prophylaxis is recommended even intrapartum to prevent vertical spread. (9,23) (Evidence Level A). Antibiotic prophylaxis is not justified for pre-planned caesarean section with intact membranes. In the case of PROM, GBS screening is not separately recommended, but in the case of premature labor has started, antibiotic prophylaxis should be used, with an antibiotic with a spectrum that also covers GBS. If someone is allergic to penicillin, vancomycin should be given. (26)
Women with preterm rupture of membranes - PPROM who have a cervical cerclage At the moment there is not enough data on how to proceed in this case. The decision must always be made taking into account the data for the specific case. If it is decided to the cerclage remains in place, antibiotic treatment for longer than 7 days is not recommended.

Amnioinfusion: The routine use of amnioinfusion in PPROM is not recommended, despite the fact that there are publications that emphasize the advantages of the method, but the number of these studies is still small. The advantages of the method include the improvement of the umbilical cord flow values ​​and the reduction of the number of variable decelerations during labor.

What are the options for preventing premature birth? Premature birth prevention options are quite limited. If a previous pregnancy ended in premature birth, or PPROM was also present, the risk of recurrence during a subsequent pregnancy is very high. (OR: 8.7, 95% CI: 6.7–11.4), especially if the time between two pregnancies is short. One possible preventive measure is progesterone therapy used between 16-24 weeks of pregnancy. For pregnant women whose previous pregnancy was complicated by PPROM, if the length of the cervix is ​​less than 2.5 cm before 24 weeks, prophylactic cerclage surgery is recommended. (9,27)

If someone had a GBS infection during the previous pregnancy, the risk of recurrence is 50%, therefore antibiotic prophylaxis is recommended.(26) Routine screening is not recommended for all pregnant women, but if the fetus was infected with GBS during the previous pregnancy, antibiotic prophylaxis is necessary for the current pregnancy.

What are the social aspects of preterm birth? Caring for a premature baby requires longer hospital care, which increases the associated costs. In the USA, the average cost of care for a healthy newborn is $4,389, while the average cost for a premature baby is $54,194. In addition to the higher costs, the more important thing is that many complications appear in premature babies, which are associated with higher mortality, or do not allow the individual to live a full life later, or may require additional care until the end of life. The birth of a premature baby can also disrupt relationships within the family: postpartum recovery can be made difficult by the stress of premature birth, lack of sleep, feelings of guilt or self-blame, anger or fear about the child's future, the guilt caused by the neglected children left at home due to prolonged hospital care, the loss of the dream of the perfect child and family. Spiritual support is very important for pregnant women with PPROM. In these pregnant women, the frequency of post-traumatic stress before delivery is 14% versus 2% compared to pregnancies with a normal course, while six weeks after delivery it is 17% versus 3%. (28) Many of the risk factors of premature birth are found in the poor social situation and social inequalities. Much could be improved in this area. As a result, social inequalities and the effects of material and psychosocial determinants must be addressed in order to offer a comprehensive solution to reducing premature births. In practice, it would be the duty of every society to eliminate the risk factors that arise from social inequalities and a poor social situation. To draw attention to the importance of premature birth, since 2011, UNICEF has declared November 17 as the World Prematurity Day.

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